The vanishing gradient problem occurs when gradients become exceedingly small during backpropagation. Parameter updates then slow dramatically, especially in early layers, hindering effective learning in deep networks. section 4.3
In recurrent neural networks, gradients can diminish across long sequences, making it difficult to learn long-range dependencies even when short-term dependencies remain manageable. LSTM networks address this with a cell state that carries relevant information through the sequence, although extremely long dependencies can still be difficult. section 8.1.2
Stabilizing convolutional training with batch normalization
Two-dimensional batch normalization normalizes each feature channel using its mean and variance, producing values near mean 0 and standard deviation 1. In a three-channel, 64 × 64 convolutional example, the output keeps shape [1, 3, 64, 64] while channel statistics become approximately zero-centered with unit standard deviation. Keeping activations in an appropriate range helps maintain stable gradients and addresses vanishing or exploding gradients during backpropagation. section 4.3.2













